The Fall of

Languages

Worldwide

Fall of the Akkadian Language Akkadian,   one   of   the   major   languages of   the   ancient   world,   mother   tongue   of many    nations    including    Sumer    and Akkad   (present-day   Iraq).   It   surpassed the   Sumerian   and   became   the   lingua franca   of   the   Middle   East.   After   the   fall of   Akkad   in   2154   BC,   it   was   continued as     a     spoken,     literary     and     official language   of   the   succeeding   empires and   kingdoms,   for   over   two   thousand years.    It    was    used    as    a    medium    of education       in       schools       by       the Babylonian   empire   (1696   BC   -   1940   BC) as   well   as   the   Assyrian   empire   (911   BC -   612   BC).   During   the   6th   century   BC, Akkadian   was   one   of   the   three   official languages   of   the   Persian   Achaemenid Empire.    After    the    Greek    invasion    of Babylonia   under   Alexander   the   Great in   the   4th   century   BC,   Akkadian   was still      a      contender      as      a      written language. In     around     2334     BC,     an     Akkadian immigrant   named   Sargon,   a   bastard, who   was   cupbearer   to   Ur-Zababa,   king of   Kish   (city-state   of   Sumer),   killed   his master,     captured     the     throne     and became    king.    Sargon    took    the    title King   of   Kish,   as   well   as   “Sharru-Kin” (the    rightful    king)    and    following    the Sumerian   tradition,   he   called   himself the   "Great   Ensi   of   the   Enlil,"   He   was the   founder   of   the   “army   institution” recruited   mostly   the   Akkadian   settlers in his army. Sargon    took    over    control    of    all    the territories    under    Lugalzagesi,    moved further        and        conquered        more territories   as   far   as   the   Mediterranean Sea,   northern   Syria,   southern   Anatolia down    to    Susa    -    capital    city    of    the Elamites,   in   the   Zagros   Mountains   of western Iran. At   this   point,   Sargon   was   fully   capable to   change   the   religions,   cultures   and the     languages     of     his     empire.     He eventually   changed   the   pantheon   of the     Sumerian     religion,     introduced new   gods   and   goddesses,   developed myths    and    epics    of    his    own    and ordained   his   subjects   to   worship   the Akkadian   tribal   gods   and   goddesses, headed   by   Shamash,   Ishtar   and   Sin. He   imposed   Akkadian   as   the   official language   of   his   vast   empire,   originally a     dialect     of     the     Akkasians.     The Sumerian,    leading    language    of    this region was seriously ignored. Sargon    ruled    for    56    years    and    after death,   he   was   succeeded   by   his   son Rimush,    who    could    rule    the    empire for   about   nine   years   until   2270   BC.   He immediately    had    to    face    series    of revolts   for   independence,   by   most   of the     former     city     states     of     Sumer including      Ur,      Umma,      Adab,      Der, Lagash,   and   Kazallu,   as   well   as   Elam and     Barakhshi     in     Iran.     Since     the defeated   people   were   deprived   of   their religious   faith,   language   and   culture, they       were       united       against       the Akkadian     yoke.     However,     to     crush such       revolts,       emperor       Rimush adopted     violent     ways     and     means; finally    he    was    brutally    assassinated by    his    own    servants;    his    head    was bashed by a clay tablet. Rimush   was   succeeded   by   his   brother Manishtushu             (also             spelled Manistusu)      who      could      rule      the Akkadian   empire   for   about   15   years (2270    -    2255    BC).    He    enhanced    the military   strength   by   building   a   navy and   fought   a   sea   battle   against   thirty- two    rulers    gathered    jointly    against him.      Manishtushu      put      down      all revolts   one   by   one;   he   also   defeated the    vassal    states    of    Ansham    and Sherihum   (in   modern   Iran).   In   the   city of   Nineveh,   Manishtushu   founded   the famous   temple   of   Ishtar.   However,   like his     brother     Rimush,     he     was     also assassinated      by      his      own      court officials. After         the         violent         death         of Manishtushu,     his     son     Naram-Sin (Beloved   of   Sin)   ascended   the   throne. He   ruled   for   37   years   (2255   -   2219   BC) and   is   supposed   to   have   organized   an army   of   over   360,000   warriors;   at   that time    the    largest    size    in    the    ancient world.    He    crushed    all    revolts    raised against   his   empire,   conquered   Ebla   in Syria,   defeated   a   coalition   led   by   Kish; another   coalition   of   the   city   states   of Sumer,   led   by   the   rulers   of   Uruk.   He also    attacked    Hatti    and    also    led    a military       campaign       against       the Lullibis,      a      tribe      settled      in      the northwest   part   of   what   is   now   Iran.   To secure    absolute    obedience,    Naram- Sin   claimed   for   himself   to   be   a   ‘god,’ as    well    as    the    ‘King    of    the    Four Quarters’   (of   the   world),   and   ‘King   of the Universe.’ He    ordered    that    the    cuneiform    star sign     (the     sign     of     the     gods)     must precede his name. To      promote      Akkadian      gods      and goddesses,      Naram-Sin      propagated that       the       Sumerian       gods       and goddesses,      after      grown      old      had already     died.     He     also     wanted     to replace    Nippur    with    Agade,    as    the most    sacred    city    of    the    Akkadian Ishtar   -   goddess   of   war;   for   her   a   huge temple   was   constructed   in   Agade.   At the    time,    Nippur    was    considered    as the    most    sacred    city,    seat    of    the Sumerian   great   god   Enlil.   The   people of    Sumer    and    Akkad    resisted    such move     at     the     pain     of     death     and revolted.     In     retaliation,     Naram-Sin attacked   Nippur,   looted   and   destroyed the   Temple   of   Enlil   -   who   alone   had the   authority   to   bestow   crown   on   any one   if   he   desired.After   the   destruction of    Nippur,    Naram-Sin    appointed    his son       Shar-Kulli-Sharri       to       control directly the city of Nippur. Taking   advantage   of   the   situation,   the Gutians   -   a   people   living   in   the   Zagros Mountains        (Iran),        invaded        the Akkadian   empire   but   were   repulsed. This   was   the   period,   when   the   entire Akkadian   empire   was   surrounded   by a   series   of   rumours   that   the   enraged god   Enlil   had   withdrawn   his   support for    Naram-Sin    and    had    ordered    the Gutians    to    cause    a    curse    on    Agade and   wipe   out   the   Akkadian   empire.   A text    called    the    "Cuthean    Legend    of Naram-Sin"         shows         the         king bewildered,   confused,   sunk   in   gloom, sorrowful     and     exhausted     from     an overwhelming    invasion.    Under    such circumstances,           the           Amorites, Hurrians,        Assyrians,        and        the subjugated   people   of   Sumer   including Ur   also   exploded   and   the   empire   was in turmoil. Before     a     natural     death     in     2219, Naram-Sin    left    behind    many    crisis, series   of   revolts   for   independence,   as well     as     the     religious     hatred     and prejudices.   He   was   succeeded   by   his son    Shar-Kulli-Sharri    as    emperor    of the   Akkadian   empire   (2218   -   2193   BC). According   to   the   Sumerian   king   list, Shar-kali-sharri   reigned   for   25   (or   24) years. Shar-Kali-Sharri   tried   to   shore   up   the empire     and     undoes     the     damage caused         by         his         father.         He reconstructed   the   house   of   Enlil   and fought    well    to    preserve    the    realm. Shar-Kali-Sharri        won        numerous battles,   and   continually   had   to   fight the   Gutians,   Lullubi,   and   the   Amorites, but   in   the   meantime   was   killed   in   a palace   revolt.   His   reign   signaled   the rise     of     Gutians     and     end     of     the Akkadian   Empire,   founded   by   Sargon of Akkad. The    Gutians    occupied    most    of    the areas      of      the      Akkadian      empire, thoroughly   destroyed   and   looted   the cities.   The   capital   city   of   Agade   was destroyed    to    such    an    extent    that    it was    never    inhabited    again;    even    its location   has   never   been   found   to   this day. Over   the   fall   of   Sargon's   empire,   the Sumerians    wrote    lamentations:    "the blood    of    their    people    filled    holes    in their    grounds    like    hot    bronze    in    a mold;    human    bodies    dissolving    like fat   in   the   sun   and   their   cities   covered with    a    shroud    of    smoke.    They    saw their    demise    as    the    result    of    their gods    having    abandoned    them    like migrating birds. The   Akkadian   empire,   which   survived for   142   years,   at   its   fall   witnessed   the rise    of    the    Akkadian    language    that had    reached    to    its    heights    and    had become     the     lingua     franca     of     the Middle     East.     The     Sumerian     -     the mother   tongue   of   the   Sumerians   had lost   its   importance;   it   was   restricted   to the     literary     and     sacred     religious writings.      At      the      other      side,      the Akkadian    tribal    gods    and    goddesses had    acquired    universal    status    and were        worshipped        willingly        or unwillingly   on   large   scale   all   over   the empire. While   facing   serious   resistance   within Sumer   and   Akkad,   the   Gutians   -   new rulers   of   the   Akkadian   empire   simply kept    on    looting    and    destroying    the areas     continuously     for     about     125 years     and     ultimately     dragged     the region   into   Dark   Age.   They   left   behind nothing   as   material   record;   therefore no    binding    statements    about    them are possible. Under     such     circumstances,     Puzer- Mama,   ruler   of   the   city   state   of   Lagash revolted,   declared   independence   and became   king   (lugal).   Gudea,   one   of   the rulers    of    Lagash    (ca.    2150–2125    BC) had   the   power   and   means   to   carry   out an   extensive   program   for   building   the irrigation   channels   and   construction of      the      temples      of      many      gods exclusively   Temple   of   Ningirsu   -   god of   war.   He   also   commissioned   at   least 30   statues   representing   himself   as   a devout   worshipper   and   messenger   of gods.     Inscriptions     record     that     the gods   revealed   to   Gudea   in   his   dreams methods    for    purification    of    the    city, for    the    preparation    of    the    religious sites     and     for     the     construction     of temples. During     20     years     of     his     reign,     as mentioned   in   the   temple   inscriptions, Gudea    built    temples    in    Ur,    Nippur, Adab,    Uruk    and    Bad-Tibira,    all    are known   by   his   name;   the   main   military exploit   seems   to   have   occurred   in   his Year   6,   called   the   "year   when   Anshan was      smitten      with      weapons."      He claimed   to   have   conquered   Elam   and Anshan.   Gudea   chose   the   title   of   ensi (city   ruler)   less   than   the   exalted   lugal (king);   after   death   he   was   defied   and known      as      the      "god      of      Lagash." However,   Lagash   enjoyed   a   century   of complete    independence    during    the Gutian rule. In   the   meantime,   Utu-hegal   (r.c.   2120 -   2112   BC),   ruler   of   the   city   state   of Uruk    defeated    Gutian’s    king    Tiriqan, then      commonly      known      as      ‘the stinging    serpent    of    the    hills.’    Utu- hegal   defeated   and   arrested   Tiriqan   - the      last      ruler      of      Gutians.      One inscription reads as under:             “   Utu-hegal   sat   down;   Tiriqan   lay   at his    feet.    Upon    his    neck,    he    set    his foot,   and   the   sovereignty   of   Sumer   he restored into his (own) hands.” However,    Utu-hegal    liberated    Sumer and   Akkad   by   freeing   the   land   from thieves,   robbers,   and   rebels.   He   ruled this    country    continuously    for    seven years.   At   the   end,   he   was   deposed   by Ur-Nammu,   governor   of   Ur,   who   laid down    the    foundation    of    the    Third Dynasty    of    Ur    (2113    -    2004    BC)    re- captured     most     the     former     areas under     Akkadian     Empire,     including much   of   Assyria,   Syria,   Ebla   and   Elam. Even   Phoenician   Byblos   was   forced   to pay     tributes.     Ur-Nammu     took     the titles:   “king   of   Ur,   king   of   Sumer   and Akkad.” The   period   of   Ur-Nammu   was   again   a great   turning   point   in   the   history   of Sumer,    when    after    a    long    period    of over      three      centuries,      instead      of Akkadian,   the   Sumerian   language   was fully   revived   and   established   as   the official    language    of    the    empire.    He also       encouraged       the       Sumerian culture,      initiated      many      building programs,    re-fortified    the    towns    of Sumer,     and     promulgated     the     first known   code   of   laws   in   around   2050 BC.   The   Third   dynasty   of   Ur   lasted   for a   century   (c.   2112-c.   2004);   suddenly its   last   ruler   Ibbi-Sin   (2029-2002)   was attacked   by   the   Elamites   (of   Iran)   in 2002;   they   defeated   the   armed   forces of    Ur,    massacred    the    citizens,    burnt the    city    and    arrested    king    Ibbi-Sin, who   was   dragged   in   chains   to   Elum, where        he        died        in        captivity. Subsequently,        the        Ur        dynasty collapsed. A   few   years   after   the   fall   of   Third   Ur dynasty,    Ishbi-Erra    -    known    as    'the man    of    Mari,    governor    of    northern Sumer,    succeeded    in    expelling    the Elamites     from     Ur,     and     gradually extended   his   sway   over   most   of   the areas    of    the    Sumer    and    Akkad.    He established   his   own   'Isin   dynasty'   and ruled for 33 years (1953 BC - 1921 BC). The     Isin     dynasty     lasted     for     two hundred   fifty   four   years   -   from   2017   to 1763.     During     this     period,     the     Isin kings     continued     the     cultural     and religious     policies     of     the     Third     Ur dynasty    and    kept    the    Sumerian,    as the   official   language   of   their   dynasty. In        the        meantime,        Gungunum, governor    of    Lagash,    breaks    with    his masters   -   rulers   of   Isin   and   sets   up his     own     dynasty     in     Larsa.     King Gungunum   (1868   -   1841)   invaded   and occupied the city of Ur. In    1794,    Rim-Sin,    the    last    king    of Larsa,   conquered   Isin   after   defeating its     last     king     Damikilishu.     Rim-Sin claimed   for   himself   to   be   a   god,   and ruled   for   the   longest   period,   about   62 years       (1823-1763).       He       remained throughout   his   period,   defender   of   the Sumerian language and culture. During    this    period,    the    immigrating Amorite   tribes   suddenly   emerged   as the      great      conquerers      under      the leadership   of   Hammurabi   (r.c   1792   - 50   BC)   with   a   capital   in   Babylon.   They defeated   Rim-Sin,   occupied   Larsa   and Isin;    ultimately    by    way    of    conquest established      one      of      the      greatest empires   in   the   Middle   East,   known   as the   Babylonian   empire.   Its   conquered territories   stretched   from   the   Persian Gulf   northward   and   westward   through the    Tigris-Euphrates    Valley,    together with      the      Syrian      coast      of      the Mediterranean     Sea.     He     ruled     the occupied     areas     for     over     forty-two years. Hammurabi    at    his    hight    of    power decided     to     change     the     religions, languages   and   cultures   of   this   region. Firstly,   he   introduced   “Marduk”   as   the supreme      god,      greater      than      the Sumerian    gods    An,    Enlil,    Enki    and Akkadian    Shamash.    Prior    to    this,    it was    necessary    for    a    new    king    to acquire   the   traditional   title   of   "King   of Kish,"    and    was    also    required    to    be “elected   and   blessed”   by   the   god   Enlil. But,       Hammurabi       ignored       these traditions,   and   made   arrangements   to convince      his      subjects,      that      the powers    and    authorities    of    the    god Enlil    had    been    shifted    to    the    god Marduk,   who   now   had   become   “King of     the     Kings,”     who     him     self     had bestowed     kingship     on     him.     As     a result,   the   god   Enlil,   and   his   sacred city       Nippur,       gradually       lost       its importance. Now,      Babylon      became      the      most sacred   city,   for   which   it   was   told   that the   god   Marduk   himself   had   built   it with    his    own    hands.    It    was    further said   that   the   god   Marduk   was   residing in     person,     in     a     great     temple     in Babylon,   then   known   as   “Ete-menan- ki”     (House     of     the     Foundation     of Heaven   and   Earth):   the   biblical   “Tower of Babel.” All     the     Sumerian     religious     stories including   the   creation   of   the   mankind and    of    the    universe    were    modified and    credited    to    Marduk.    Previously, according     to     the     Sumerians     and Akkadians,     the     universe     and     the mankind   was   created   from   clay   at   the will of An, by the god Enlil. Hammurabi      abolished      city-states, introduced         centralized         system, managed   through   the   city   of   Babylon, which    also    inherited    all    the    sacred and   legendary   traditions   of   Kish   and Nippur, and Agade. Hammurabi      called      himself      as      a “chosen   person   -   messenger   of   gods.” He   claimed   that   the   gods   called   him by    name    Hammurabi    -    the    exalted prince.   To   keep   strict   control   over   the defeated     people,     and     to     actively pursue     and     punish     the     so-called criminals,      Hammurabi      introduced new   code   of   laws,   by   which   he   divided his      subjects      into      three      classes: awilum        (nobles,        ruling        class: Amorites),      muskenum      (merchants, property    holders,    taxpayers),    and    a wardum (slave). To     maintain     this     “Caste     System,” Hammurabi     claimed     that     he     has received        these        laws        through commandments     from     Shamash     – Akkadian    god    of    justice,    who    was widely     worshipped     throughout     the former   areas   of   the   Akkadian   Empire. As   a   result,   Hammurabi   became   the messenger   of   god   Shamash,   and   the laws,   he   introduced   together   with   the Caste    System    became    part    of    the religion,   extremely   sacred,   inevitable, can   not   be   altered   or   amended   by   any human     being.     According     to     these laws,   all   classes   were   to   be   protected, but   penalties   varied   according   to   the status   and   caste   of   the   offenders.   If   a person   of   “Noble   Caste”   destroyed   the eye   of   another   noble   he   might   have his   own   eye   put   out,   or   if   he   broke   the bone   of   another   noble   he   had   one   of his   own   bones   broken,   but   if   he   broke the    bone    of    a    “common    man”    or destroyed   that   person's   eye   he   only had to pay a fine. The   Code   of   Hammurabi,   consisted   of 282   legal   judgments,   or   "paragraphs," on    civil    and    criminal    law,    including family   law   (marriage   and   divorce),   as well   as   economic   provisions   (prices, tariffs,    trade,    and    commerce).    These laws   inscribed   on   a   diorite   stela   were set    up    in    the    temple    of    Marduk,    in Babylon.   Its   most   striking   feature   lies in    the    extraordinary    severity    of    its penalties     and     it     differs     in     many respects     from     the     codes     of     Ur- Nammu   and   Lipit-Ishtar,   which   were written in Sumerian language. Hammurabi     ignored     the     Sumerian language,     that     was     fully     revived during   the   period   of   the   Third   Ur,   Isin and   Larsa   dynasties.   He   retained   the Akkadian   as   the   official   language   of the                Babylonian                empire; simultaneously   the   Amorite   language was   also   encouraged.   In   due   course, changes    occurred    in    the    vocabulary of    Akkadian    and    it    evolved    as    the Babylonian language. The    Babylonian    empire    survived    for abouy   150   years;   its   last   king   Samsu- Ditana      of      Hammurabi      line      was overthrown    in    around    1531    BC,    by Mursilis    I,    king    of    Hittites    based    at Anatolia        (modern        Turkey).        He destroyed    -    the    capital    city,    looted and    massacred    its    people;    and    to humiliate       the       Babylonians,       the Hittites     took     away     statue     of     the leading Babylonian god Marduk. King    Mursilis    left    behind    a    morally and     economically     crippled     nation, without    defense    and    without    rulers. Subsequently   the   Babylonian   empire collapsed     instantly.     While     vacating this   land,   the   Hittite   invaders   handed over   its   control   to   Kassite   immigrants, who     remained     their     allies     during attack   over   Babylon.   Subsequently   the Kassites        (non        Semitic        people, foreigners)        became        rulers        of Babylonia   headed   by   Agum-Kakrime. He   defeated   the   Hittites   and   got   back the statue of the god Marduk. However,    during    the    period    of    the Babylonian      empire,      the      Akkadian language   reached   to   its   highest   level, and      flourished      all      around      the Babylonian   empire   as   a   spoken   and literary    language.    At    the    other,    the Sumerian   language   had   to   enter   to   its last    phase    of    survival.    Although    it remained      still      alive      as      regional language     as     well     as     the     mother tongue   of   many   nations   of   the   former city states of Sumer and Akkad. The     Kassites     -     new     rulers     of     the former       Babylonian       empire       were entirely    a    distinct    population;    they laid   the   foundation   of   a   new   dynasty, established    a    new    capital    west    of Baghdad,   Dur   Kurigalzu,   named   after Kassite    king    Kurigalzu    I    (c.    1400-c. 1375)   and   continued   to   rule   Babylonia without   interruption   for   the   next   576 years     and     9     months,     the     longest period in the Babylonian history. The   original   homeland   of   Kassites   is obscure,    but    appears    to    have    been located    in    the    Zagros    Mountains    in Lorestan      (present-day      Iran).      They started   migrating   towards   this   region during     18th     century     BC     and     the Babylonian          King          Samsu-Iluna (reigned   ca.   1686   –   1648   BC)   -   son   of Hammurabi      made      many      serious attempts     to     repel     them,     but     they forcibly   settled   in   the   populated   areas of the northern Babylonia. The     Kassite     period     has     not     been studied   extensively;   It   is   unclear,   how they   were   able   to   rule   this   region   for such         a         long         period.         The documentation   of   the   Kassite   period depends     heavily     on     thousands     of tablets   and   fragments   excavated   from Nippur.   They   spoke   Kassite   language without   a   genetic   relationship   to   any other      known      tongue;      some      300 Kassite      words      have      been      found written on the scattered tablets. As   per   the   tablets,   the   Kassite   kings abolished      system      of      city-states, divided     the     realm     into     provinces, administered      by      governors.      They refurbished     many     of     the     ancient Babylonian   cities   including   Nippur   - formerly    the    most    sacred    city    and seat   of   the   great   god   Enlil,   which   had been        virtually        destroyed        and abandoned   nearly   two   hundred   years ago   (ca.   1730   BC).   It   was   made   parallel with   the   royal   cities   of   Babylon   and Dur-Kurigalzu. Though    Kassite    rulers    followed    their own      religion      and      language      and worshipped   nearly   30   gods   headed   by Shuqamuna,       but       they       did       not interfere    in    the    religious    faith    and social    structure    of    the    Babylonians. They           maintained           Babylonian language   (Akkadian)   throughout   their period   as   the   main   language   of   the administration         and         diplomatic communication       written       in       the cuneiform   script.   Even   the   Sumerian was   used   as   an   esoteric   language   of elite   culture   and   the   cult.   In   literature, great   works   were   preserved,   with   lines alternating     between     the     Sumerian original    and    their    direct    translation into Akkadian. At   this   juncture   of   history,   the   system of   "conquests"   and   subsequently   "the rise   and   fall   of   nations"   was   in   its   full speed   all   over   the   world;   any   nation could    illegally    prosper    by    usurping resources,     wealth,     man-power     and territory   of   others   through   conquests. Although,    the    people    of    this    region witnessed     many     changes     in     the social      structure;      many      religions, cultures,       languages,       gods       and goddesses       changed;       they       also witnessed    destruction    of    the    great cities,   massacre   of   the   citizens,   fall   of the        civilizations,        culture        and languages,    and    the    rise    and    fall    of nations,   but   the   system   of   'conquest' remained intact. In   1225   BC,   Kastiliasu   IV,   the   twenty- eighth   Kassite   king   of   Babylonia   (in   all 36)      was      defeated      and      captured, single-handed    by    the    Assyrian    king, Tukulti-Ninurta   1   (1244   BC   -   1208   BC). He    was    deported    ignominiously    in chains   to   Assyria   with   the   statue   of the   greatest   god   Marduk.   During   the war,    Assyrian    demolished    the    huge walls      of      Babylon,      massacred      its inhabitants,    pillaged    and    plundered the   temples   in   Babylon,   especially   the temple   of   Marduk;   it   was   considered as   an   act   of   sacrilege.   Tukulti-Ninurta 1    ruled    Babylonia    for    seven    years, taking   on   the   old   title   "king   of   Sumer and      Akkad."      Very      soon      Tukulti- Ninurta    was    murdered    by    his    own sons;   one   of   them,   Ashur-nadin-apli would    succeed    him    on    the    throne. However,       the       Kassites       regained kingship     of     Babylonia     by     paying heavy cost to the Assyrians as tribute. In   about   1155   BC,   Enlil-nadin-ahi,   the 36th   and   last   King   of   Kassites   (1157   - 1155   BC)   was   defeated   and   captured by    Shutruk-Nahhunte    ruler    of    Elam. He    was    carried    to    Susa    -    capital    of Elum,   together   with   the   statue   of   the greatest   Babylonian   god   Marduk   and the    stele    of    Hammurabi’s    code    of laws.   The   Kassite   king   died   in   Elum during     captivity.     Subsequently     the Kassite   dynasty   ended   after   a   rule   of over   five   hundred   years;   now   Elamites were its new rulers. Within   four   decades,   after   the   fall   of the   Kassites,   the   city   of   Isin   (former city   state   of   Sumer)   emerged   as   the center     of     resistance     against     the Elamite   overrule.   The   2nd   Dynasty   of Isin     under     Nebuchadnezzar     I     (c. (1125-1105   BC)   drive   out   the   Elamites from   Babylonia   and   led   a   campaign deep   into   Elam,   conquering   its   capital city     Susa     and     receiving     back     the stolen statue of the god Marduk. In   the   meantime,   after   a   gap   of   few hundred   years,   Assyrians   -   a   Semitic people,   reemerged   for   the   third   time, as   the   most   dominating   force   in   the Middle   East.   They   were   based   at   Assur -   a   former   city   state   within   Sumer   and Akkad,    situated    between    the    Tigris and   Euphrates   Rivers.   The   Assyrians were    the    first    to    create    a    military society    and    made    warfare    as    their utmost   job;   all   free   male   citizens   were obliged    to    serve    in    the    army    for    a time,   a   system   which   was   called   the ilku-service.   They   were   also   the   first to   equip   fully   their   militia   with   armor made   of   iron,   sappers,   siege   engines etc.    The    main    striking    force    of    the Assyrian     army     was     the     corps     of horse-drawn,     two-wheeled     chariots. At     its     height     the     Assyrian     army numbered        more        than        200,000 soldiers. However,    by    way    of    conquest,    the Assyrians     established     the     greatest empire    the    ancient    world    had    yet seen;   they   proved   to   be   the   most   cruel rulers.   During   their   rule,   spread   over   a period   of   around   three   hundred   years (911   BC   -   612   BC),   major   parts   of   the Middle    East    remained    battle    ground with    full    of    dead    bodies;    all    those people     who     tried     to     defend     their mother   lands   were   killed,   massacred, crippled,       maimed,       flayed       alive, impaled,    burned    alive,    buried    alive; cutting     off     ears,     noses,     and     sex organs;     most     of     the     people     were blinded   enmass   with   one   eye.   It   was not   unusual   for   the   Assyrian   rulers   to kill   every   man,   woman,   and   child   in captured     cities;     many     great     cities were   burnt   and   erased   to   ground.   To eliminate     national     identity     of     the defeated    people    and    to    demoralise them,   they   were   forced   to   vacate   their mother    lands    and    shift    as    a    whole nation   to   unknown   places   within   the Assyrian   empire.   This   is   how   that   they were   named   as   the   scruge   of   God.   All accounts   of   their   cruelties   come   from the       records       of       the       Assyrians themselves;   King   Ashurnasipal,   one   of the      last      powerful      rulers      of      the Assyrian        empire        recorded        the following    account    on    clay    tablets    of his    treatment    with    the    prisoners    of war, which is worth reading: “3000   of   their   combat   troops   I   felled with   weapons   …   Many   of   the   captives taken   from   them   I   burned   in   a   fire. Many   I   took   alive;   from   some   of   these I   cut   off   their   hands   to   the   writs,   from other   I   cut   off   their   noses,   ears   and fingers;   I   put   out   the   eyes   of   many   of the    soldiers    …    I    burned    their    young men and women to death. After     conquering     another     city,     he wrote: “I   fixed   up   a   pile   of   corpses   in   front   of the   city’s   gate.   I   flayed   the   nobles,   as many    as    had    rebelled,    and    spread their   skins   out   on   the   piles   …   I   flayed many    within    my    land    and    spread their skins out on the walls.” In   a   strugle   to   survive   independently, most   of   the   defeated   nations   kept   on fighting   repeatedly   and   were   time   and again   defeated   and   enslaved   by   the Assyrians.    They    includes:    Babylonia, Elam        (Iran),        Urartu        (Caucasus Mountains)      and      Armenia;      Media, Persia,   and   Mannea   -   kingdoms   in   the present-day   Iran   and   Azerbaijan;   Mari (western        bank        of        Euphrates), Phoenicia           (modern           Lebanon), Palestine,      Aramea      (Syria),      Arabia, Israel,   Judah,   Edom   (roughly   between the    Dead    Sea    and    Red    Sea),    Moab (Jordan),    Samarra    (parts    of    the    West Bank,     outside     Israel)     Cilicia     (Asia Minor),     Cyprus,     Chaldea     (southern Iraq),      Nabatea      (part      of      Arabia), Commagene          (Turkey),          Dilmun (Bahrain),   Egypt   and   others.   All   under the Assyrians. The   Assyrians,   throughout   their   long period    maintained    the    Akkadian    as the       language       of       administration, education   and   culture.   Since   they   had dislocated    many    nations    from    their native     lands     including     Arameans, subsequently    these    people    became the   most   dominating   segment   of   the population   of   Babylonia   and   Assyria. As   a   result,   the   Aramaic   language   of the   Arameans   rapidly   emerged   as   the lingo     franca     of     the     Middle     East parallel   to   the   Akkadian   language.   In 752    BC,    the    Assyrian    king    Tiglath- Pileser   III   recognaised   Aramaic   as   the official    language    of    his    vast    empire together with the Akkadian. However,    Babylonia    remained    under the   yoke   of   the   Assyrians   for   over   two hundred    years.    In    631    BC,    upon    the death    of    Ashurbanipal,    one    of    the most    powerful    Assyrian    rulers,    the Babylonians   once   again   revolted   and declared          independence          under Nabopolassar,   a   Chaldean,   then   army commander     of     the     Assyrians.     He himself   became   king   of   Babylonia   on 23   November   626   BC   and   eventually laid     the     foundation     of     the     Neo- Babylonian       Empire.       Nabopolassar made      alliances      with      the      other defeated      nations      -      the      Medes, Persians,   Elamites   and   Scythians   -   all against   the   Assyrian   rule.   In   616   BC, they     jointly     attacked     Assyria     and surrounded   Nineveh,   its   capital   city, covered   by   hundred   feet   high   walls. After     four     years     of     bitter     fighting, followed   by   house   to   house   raids,   the coalition   finally   occupied   Nineveh   in 612    BC.    The    city    was    systematically destroyed    and    burned    together    with its   citizens.   Sin-shar-ishkun,   king   of Assyria    was    also    found    dead    in    his burning    palace    in    Nineveh.    At    the time,    Nineveh    had    a    population    of some    120,000    and    was    probably    the largest city in the ancient world. In   a   further   move,   the   whole   Assyria was   thoroughly   sacked   and   its   people were    exterminated;    Ashur    -    the    old capital   city   and   seat   of   the   greatest Assyrian       god       was       looted       and destroyed    together    with    the    city    of Nimrud. Once    the    king    Sin-shar-ishkun    was dead,     Ashur-uballit     II,     one     of     the Assyrian   army   commanders   declared himself   king   of   Assyria,   set   up   a   new capital    at    Harran,    with    the    military support     of     the     Egyptian     Pharaoh Necho   II,   who   was   raised   to   the   post of   pharaoh   with   the   assistance   of   the Assyrians.      Nabopolassar      and      his allies     besieged     Ashur-uballit     II     at Harran   in   608   BC,   defeated   his   army; Ashur-uballit           II           disappeared. Subsequently,      the      great      Assyrian empire     collapsed     completely.     Now Assyria     was     an     entity,     eventually became      a      colony      of      the      Neo Babylonian       empire.       To       avenge Pharaoh      Necho      II,      Nabopolassar waged      inconclusive      wars      against Egypt,        followed        by        his        son Nebuchadnezzar.           After           death, Nebopolassar   was   succeeded   by   his son    entitled    as    Nebuchadnezzar    II who   reigned   for   44   years   (605   BC   –   563 BC). Being        the        ruler        of        Assyria, Nebuchadnezzar         II         theoritically became   claimant   for   the   right   to   rule all     of     those     countries     previously conquered      by      the      Assyrians.      To achieve   this   goal,   Nebuchadnezzar   II started    military    campaigns,    invaded Syria   and   Phoenicia   and   Asia   Minor, forcing    tribute    from    Damascus,    Tyre and    Sidon.    He    invaded    Arabia    and routed   the   Arabs   at   Qedar   in   599   BC. During   his   second   campain   in   597   BC, he   occupied   and   destroyed   Jerusalem after   a   long   of   siege   of   18   months;   the Solomon's     Temple     was     raised     to ground;   the   king   of   Judah   Jehoiachin was   taken   as   prisoner   with   the   queen Nehushta   and   were   sent   as   captive   to Babylon   along   with   over   40,000   Jews. The   treasures   and   the   sacred   vessels of the Temple were also stolen. Nebuchadnezzar      II      made      yearly attacks     over     the     former     Assyrian colonies   and   turned   the   entire   region into   a   battle   ground.   This   means,   the Babylonians   did   not   learn   any   thing from    history;    instead    of    respecting sovereignty   of   the   other   nations,   they themselves          became          invaders, conquerors,   killers   and   looters.   Even their   religion   remained   silent   on   this subject.    For    over    a    long    period    of around   three   thousand   years,   none   of Sumerian,    Akkadian,    Babylonian    or Assyrian   gods   and   goddesses   decreed for        peace,        independence        and brotherhood;   No   one   condemned   the system   of   conquest;   no   one   ordained not   to   loot   the   resources   of   others,   not to      kidnap      and      humiliate      sons, daughters,     sisters,     mothers     of     the other      peoples;      nothing      is      found written     over     the     clay     tablets.     The people   of   this   region   had   to   surrender time    and    again    their    mother    lands, their    resources,    man-power,    as    well as      their      faiths,      languages      and cultures    to    the    mighty    conquerors. They    repeatedly    remained    victim    of wars,    invasions,    killings,    massacres, severe   punishments   and   destruction of     their     cities     by     the     so     called conquerors. However,   by   572   BC   Nebuchadnezzar   II was     in     full     control     of     Babylonia, Assyria,    Phoenicia,    Israel,    Philistinia, northern    Arabia    and    parts    of    Asia Minor. The     Neo-Babylonian     rulers     revived the    old    Akkadian    religion    together with       its       gods       and       goddesses previously   introduced   by   the   Sargon of    Akkad    during    3rd    millennium    BC. The   greatest   god   Marduk,   introduced by    Hammurabi    was    neglected.    This major   change   in   the   religion   annoyed the   entire   the   population   as   well   as the priesthood. The     worship     of     Shamash     -     the Akkadian   Sun   god   together   with   the Moon-god   Sin   was   promoted   on   large scale.     The     temple     of     Shamash     in Sippar   was   restored   and   the   ziggurats of   Ur   were   renovated.   Though,   at   the time,   Aramaic   had   become   the   lingo franca    of    the    region,    but    the    new rulers    fully    encouraged    Akkadian;    it was     made     the     first     language     of administration,   literature   and   culture. The     Akkadian     language     was     also reversed   to   its   original   old   form.   Even the    Cuneiform    script    was    modified according       to       its       original       form previously   used   during   the   Akkadian era.    The    literature    in    the    Sumerian language   was   also   copied   in   Akkadian and    studied.    During    these    days,    an statue   of   Sargon   the   Great   was   found; subsequently     a     huge     temple     was constructed   where   it   was   placed   with full   honours;   offerings   were   given.   The Neo-Babylonian    rulers    also    revived the   ancient   practice   of   appointing   a royal   daughter   to   serve   as   priestess   of the         Moon-god         Sin,         originally introduced by Sargon of Akkad. The   new   rulers,   while   following   the   old Akkadian     traditions,     granted     local autonomy   to   all   the   major   cities;   they were    allowed    to    maintain    their    own law     courts     and     cases     were     often decided     in     the     local     assemblies centered   at   the   temple   of   the   city.   The capital        city        of        Babylon        was reconstructed,   which   was   completely destroyed   in   689   BC,   by   Sennacherib   - an   Assyrian   ruler,   who   attempted   to erase     rebellious     Babylon     from     the face   of   the   earth.   While   entering   the city,   Sennacherib   had   slaughtered   the Babylonians    one    by    one,    until    the dead clogged the streets. The     Neo     Babylonian     Empire     could survive   around   87   years,   when   it   was conquered     by     Cyrus     the     Great     of Persia    in    539    BC.    By    adopting    the system   of   'conquest'   prevailed   in   the world,   any   adventurist,   by   hiring   the services    of    fighters,    mercenaties    on large      scale      could      become      great conqueror.    While    recording    history, such    a    deadliest    system    has    rarely been        condemned;        rather        the criminals,        murderers,        terrorists, known   as   conquerors   are   projected   as heroes. However,     following     the     system     of conquest,    Cyrus    -    an    Achaemenian, ruler     of     a     tiny     state     of     Anshan, became    the    king    of    Persia,    king    of Aryavarta,    king    of    Anshan,    king    of Media,   king   of   Babylon,   king   of   Sumer and    Akkad    and    as    claimed    by    the Cyrus,   king   of   the   four   corners   of   the World.   He   conquored   Median   empire (550   BC),   the   Lydian   empire   (546   BC) and   the   Neo-Babylonian   empire   (544 BC)   and   eventually   all   the   states   of   the ancient   Near   East,   most   of   Southwest Asia,    much    of    Central    Asia,    parts    of Europe        and        Caucasus.        Cyrus subsequently      created      the      largest Achaemenid   Empire   the   world   had   yet seen.   His   son,   Cambyses   II,   enhance the     territories     of     the     empire     by conquering   Egypt,   Nubia   (Sudan)   and Cyrenaica (Libya). After   becoming   the   sole   ruler   of   the greatest   empire,   Cyrus   the   Great   was fully   capable   to   change   the   religions, cultures      and      languages      of      the defeated   nations,   together   with   their gods      and      goddesses,      but      it      is surprising   to   note   that   he   did   nothing, rather   went   against   such   norms   and rules      normally      adopted      by      the traditional conquerors. Cyrus   remained   liberal   and   initiated   a general   policy   of   permitting   religious freedom    to    all    the    defeated    nations within   his   vast   empire.   The   religious policies   of   Cyrus   are   well   documented in   Babylonian   texts   as   well   as   Jewish sources   and   the   historians   accounts. In    Babylon,    he    kept    his    army    away from    the    temples    and    restored    the statues    of    the    Babylonian    gods    to their     sanctuaries.     One     of     the     few surviving      sources      of      information dated   directly   to   Cyrus's   time   is   the Cyrus   cylinder.   The   cylinder   describes Cyrus    not    as    a    conqueror,    but    as    a liberator   and   the   legitimate   successor to     the     crown     of     Babylonia.     While recognizing     the     Babylonians     gods, Cyrus      made      an      appeal      to      the Babylonian   public;   the   cylinder   reads as follows:             'pray   daily   before   Bel   and   Nabu (Babylonian   gods)   for   long   life   for   me, and   may   they   speak   a   gracious   word for   me   and   say   to   Marduk,   my   lord, "May    Cyrus,    the    king    who    worships you, and Cambyses, his son.' Cyrus    allowed    the    Jews,    in    captivity for    the    last    70    years    in    Babylon,    to return   back   to   their   home   lands;   he issued the following decree: ‘Concerning     the     house     of     God     at Jerusalem,   let   the   temple,   the   place where   sacrifices   are   offered,   be   rebuilt and   let   its   foundations   be   retained,   its height   being   60   cubits   and   its   width 60    cubits;    with    three    layers    of    huge stones   and   one   layer   of   timbers.   And let    the    cost    be    paid    from    the    royal treasury.   ‘Also   let   the   gold   and   silver utensils   of   the   house   of   God,   which Nebuchadnezzar   took   from   the   temple in   Jerusalem   and   brought   to   Babylon, be     returned     and     brought     to     their places    in    the    temple    in    Jerusalem; and   you   shall   put   them   in   the   house of God.’ (Ezra 6:3-5) As    a    result    of    Cyrus's    policies,    the Jews   honored   him   as   a   dignified   and righteous   king.   He   is   the   only   Gentile to     be     designated     as     Messiah,     a divinely     appointed     leader,     in     the Tanakh   (Isaiah   45:1-6).   Isaiah   45:13:   "I will       raise       up       Cyrus       in       my righteousness:    I    will    make    all    his ways   straight.   He   will   rebuild   my   city and   set   my   exiles   free,   but   not   for   a price       or       reward,       says       Yahweh Almighty." His   own   nation,   the   Iranians,   regarded him   as   'The   Father.'   Cyrus   the   Great was    mentioned    twenty-two    times    in the     Old     Testament,     where     he     is unconditionally   praised.   The   Hellenes, whom   he   conquered   regarded   him   as 'Law-giver.' After   the   death   of   Cyrus   the   Great   in 529   BC,   his   son   Cambyses   recognized Aramaic   as   well   as   the   Akkadian   as the   official   languages   of   the   Persian empire.      After      around      a      century, during    the    last    days    of    Artaxerxes    I Makrocheir    (465-424),    the    Akkadian language   was   ignored   and   no   longer used      in      the      Achaemenid      royal inscriptions       and       was       gradually superseded by the Aramaic language. The   Achaemenid   empire   survived   for over   two   hundred   years   until   330   BC, when   its   last   ruler   Darius   III   (336   -   330 BC)    was    defeated    in    a    number    of battles   by   Alexander   the   Great,   ruler   of Mecedonia.    Alexander,    aged    around 22     years,     eventually     occupied     the capital   city   Persepolis   in   331   BC   and became   ruler   of   all   the   nations   then under the Achaemenid Persians. During   the   Battle   of   Issus   fought   on 6th    November    333    BC,    the    Persian king   Darius   III   suffered   a   heavy   loss; around    110,000    Persian    soldiers    lost their     lives;     Darius     landed     around 600,000   soldiers   in   the   battle   field.   At the   other   side,   Alexander   suffered   a loss   of   450   Macedonians   and   10,000 Greek   mercenaries.   Alexander   landed in all 75,000 soldiers in the battle field. Once,   Alexander   became   emperor   of the    former    Achaemenid    empire,    the rest   of   Persian   soldiers   turned   their loyalty      and      became      soldiers      of Alexander       the       Great.       Such       a treacherous    role    always    had    been played   throughout   the   ages   by   all   the armed    forces    of    the    world.    As    per tradition,   the   army   men   initially   fight against     the     enemy,     sacrifice     their lives,   and   when   the   enemy   becomes conqueror,   they   change   their   loyalty to   the   enemy.   Entire   human   history   is full    of    such    examples.    Due    to    such treacherous     role     of     the     army,     it became   possible   for   the   alien   rulers, adventurists,   terrorists,   invaders   and the     so-called     conquerors     to     build empires,   subjugate   time   and   again   all of     the     nations     of     the     world     for centuries     together.     Alexander     the Great   was   one   of   such   examples.   He started    from    Macedonia    with    6,000 soldiers;   at   the   borders   of   the   Persian empire,      he      was      holding      30,000 soldiers   and   at   the   Battle   of   Issus,   the number   of   his   soldiers   was   raised   to around      70,000.      Finally,      when      he occupied      the      entire      Achaemenid empire,    over    a    half    million    armed men    were    at    his    command,    all    had changed   their   loyalty   in   his   favour   - enemy     of     their     nation,     who     had occupied        their        mother        lands.        However,      Alexander      -      the      great Conqueror        decided        to        change religions,     cultures,     languages     and even   the   identity   of   all   the   defeated nations.   He   desired   to   transform   the Middle     East     into     a     single     Greek Nation.              Subsequently              the Macedonians   and   the   Greek   soldiers were   ordained   to   marry   all   the   girls and   women   of   the   defteated   people,   to produce     a     neo     Greek     generation. Alexander   arranged   a   'mass   wedding' in   Susa   in   324   BC,   where   in   one   night over    10,000    Greek    and    Macedonians were   married   to   Iranian   girls.   Within   a year    or    two    all    Iranian    girls    were divorced except a few. After   the   conquest   of   Egypt,   Alexander visited    the    temple    of    Amon-Ra,    the Egyptian   great   god,   where   the   priests declared     him     son     of     Zeus     -     the greatest   Greek   god,   as   well   as   the   son of       Amon.       Eventually       Alexander proclaimed   to   be   a   god.   He   was   also portayed    in    Maedonian    coinage    as Apollo - one of the Greek god. While    away    from    home,    Alexander died   on   June   7,   323   BC,   at   the   age   of 33,     in     Babylon     (Iraq);     instead     of Macedonia,    his    body    was    shifted    to Egypt,   where   he   was   buried   firstly   in Memphis    and    then    in    Alexandria    - newly   developed   Greek   city.   Alexander left   behind   a   huge   empire   stretched from   Persia   (Iran),   Babylonia   (present- day       Iraq,       Syria,       Palestine       and Lebanon),     Anatolia     (Turkey),     Egypt, Bactria     (parts     of     the     present-day Afghanistan,     Tajikistan,     Uzbekistan, and      Turkmenistan),      Indus      Valley (present-day    Pakistan)    and    parts    of India     in     the     east,     including     his homeland     -     Macedon,     as     well     as Greece,   conquered   by   his   father   Philip II. To    occupy    all    the    above    territories conquered   by   Alexander   the   Great,   his army     commanders     fought     bloody wars      with      each      other;      General Antigonus,    Perdiccas    and    Meleager were    killed;    eventually    four    of    his generals          succeeded:          Seleucus occupied       Asia,       Ptolemy       (Egypt), Lysimachus    (Thrace)    and    Cassander (Macedonia   and   Greece).   They   became independent,    established    their    own dynasties       and       most       of       them proclaimed   to   be   a   god,   governed   the defeated       people       through       divine authority with absolute powers. In      Egypt,      Ptolemy      I,      proclaimed himself   king   in   305   BC,   took   the   divine title   of   'Soter'   (Saviour)   and   declared himself     a     living     god.     He     laid     the foundation of Ptolemaic Dynasty. Seleucus   occupied   Babylon   in   312   BC, established   the   Seleucid   dynasty   and the   Seleucid   Empire,   centring   on   most of      the      territories      of      the      former Achaemenid   empire   in   Asia,   renamed as             Mesopotamia,             Armenia, Cappadocia,    Persis,    Parthia,    Bactria, Arabia,    Tapouria,    Sogdia,    Arachosia, Hyrcania and Indus Valley. Seleucus          was          defeated          by Chandragupta     Maurya,     emperor     of India;   finally   through   a   treaty   sealed in   305   BC,   Seleucus   gave   his   daughter in     marriage     to     Chandragupta     and agreed    to    relinquish    his    claim    for Indus    Valley,    southern    Afghanistan and       parts       of       Persia,       formerly conquered   by   Alexander   the   Great   in 327        BC.        At        the        other        side Chandragupta    handed    over    500    war elephants   to   Seleucus   as   a   gesture   of good will. To     transform     the     defeated     Asian nations    into    a    single    Greek    nation, Seleucus   took   many   serios   steps;   he started   building   a   series   of   new   cities based   on   Greek   culture,   centered   with the    temples    of    the    Greek    gods    and goddesses,    headed    by    Zues    -    the greatest   Greek   god.   All   of   the   defeated populations    living    in    the    old    cities were    forcibly    migrated    to    the    new cities,   so   as   to   cut   off   them   from   their past,   from   their   religion,   culture,   gods and    goddesses.    Seleucus    eventually built   nine   Seleucias,   sixteen   Antiochs and     six     Laodiceas.     Aramaic     -     the official      language      of      the      former Achaemenid   empire   and   lingo   france of   the   Middle   East   was   replaced   by   the Greek   as   the   principal   language   of   the Seleucid Empire. Babylon,   one   of   the   greatest   cities   in the    world,    which    had    served    as    the capital      city      of      all      the      previous empires     for     over     1500     years,     was completely       deserted;       its       entire population     was     forcibly     shifted     to Seleucia    -    new    city    established    by Seleucus    under    his    name,    on    the Tigris,   in   275   BC   .   The   other   great   cities of   Sumer   and   Akkad,   such   as   Ur,   Uruk, Eridu,    Lagash,    Isin    and    others    were also    vacated,    eventually    declined    to insignificance. Another   Greek   city   Antioch   was   made the     capital     and     court-city     of     the western              Seleucid              empire. Subsequently   Antioch   became   one   of the   largest   cities   in   the   world,   with   a population         of         over         600,000, inhabitated      by      the      Babylonians, Greeks,       Macedonians,       Jews       and others. During      his      last      days,      Seleucus invaded   and   occupied   Macedonia   and Thracia;    later    he    moved    to    conquer Greece.    While    on    his    way,    Seleucus was   murdered   by   Ptolemy   Ceraunus son      of      Ptolemy      I      of      Egypt,      in September     281     BC.     His     son     and successor   Antiochus   I,   constructed   a great    mausoleum    in    honour    of    his father    in    Seleucia,    where    Seleucus was   worshipped   as   a   Zeus   Nicator   - son of god. The   Seleucus   dynasty   lasted   for   over two   hundred   years;   during   this   long period,       the       Akkadian       language entered   into   its   last   phase   of   survival, and   eventually   disappeared   together with        the        Babylonian        cultures, religions,    gods    and    goddesses.    Even the     people     of     Sumer,     Akkad     and Babylonia   lost   their   national   identity.   CONTINUE TO NEXT PAGE